The impacts of plastics’ life cycle

Plastics are commonly synthetic polymers used by many industries because they inexpensive, durable, moldable, and have a wide range of applications. However, plastics production, use, waste associated with numerous challenges, including unsustainable resource greenhouse gas emissions, toxic chemicals, unprecedented environmental pollution. Here, we provide an overview plastic end life, highlighting how this has become such ubiquitous problem. Interventions need to happen along the entire life cycle reduce burdens on communities where produced, more choices consumers who want avoid plastics, quantities that leak out into our environment, harm wildlife humans currently being impacted use leakage environment. changed nearly every aspect society, although their is relatively recent, it difficult imagine certain aspects without material. But impacts pollution becoming evident each day, material must be examined find ways (Table 1). Over 400 Mt adhesives, coatings produced for globally year. Roughly 98% feedstocks make from fossil fuels, oil, gas. Those same can contribute making additives potential toxic. Plastic starts at production facilities refined petrochemicals generated. And once been used, environment impact wildlife.Table 1Summary impactsEnvironmentcontaminationair (e.g., indoor dust, sea spray, etc.)water surface water, groundwater, ice, glaciers, oceans)soil agricultural lands, landfills)impact plant growth/agriculture in soilschemical release transformationpolymer-associated chemicalsadsorbed contaminantsclimateextraction fuels productioncarbon cycling impeded microplasticsBiodiversityentanglementlimited mobilitystrangulationdeathingestion inhalationtoxicityphysical lacerationsdietary dilutiondecreased reproductive healthhabitat displacement or creationtransportinvasive speciesviruses pathogensmicrobial growth community dynamicsHuman health societyexposure chemicals near facilitieseconomic losses littered beachespsychological beachesobserved drinking water (bottled tap), beer, salt, seafood, honeycorrelation irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)observed placenta, lung tissue, bloodingestion, inhalation, dermal exposurephysical particle toxicity accumulationchemical accumulation Open table new tab facilitated globalization advances medicine electronics reduced immediate costs some goods. what price? Once items day as get molded products. these products come either discarded enter stream, few them recycled most up landfills. Besides feedstocks, connected climate change through emissions during small amounts lifetime, impacting carbon ocean due trillions microplastics both source block sunlight photosynthetic phytoplankton. Addressing crisis requires interventions throughout value chain. This primer provides highlights social throughout. We also discuss pathways positive beginning disrupt negative impacts. made polymers, series long-chain carbon-based molecules. Because properties any shape, varying degrees flexibility, pigmented color, useful almost imaginable application. Documenting all one person touches uses single feel like herculean task. was not so long ago know today did exist. While “plastics” naturally occurring materials, cellulose camphor, were scene 1800s, first materials invented early 1900s. The building blocks molecules sourced oil refining extracted For example, when raw crude extracted, separated distillation various components, fuel naptha (a mix hydrocarbons), applications (Figure Gas extraction hydrocarbons (with carbon–carbon bonds) ethane, propane, butane, among other components naphtha and/or steam cracked very high temperatures then quenched, compressed, fractionated create olefins ethylene propylene (now double bonds). Ethylene, discovered late 1600s, abundantly hydrocarbon world, 214 2021, precursor polyethylene (PE), terephthalate (PET), polyesters, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS). Initial chemical but there limited application demand compared plastics. When polymerization perfected new, expansive ethylene, polyethylene, provided continues significant Petrochemical companies may otherwise had monomer could millions possible Currently, 50% polymerized only fraction goes Ethylene polyester US produces approximately 40% global ethane-based worldwide. With primary inextricably tied and, therefore, change. steam-cracking process energy heat, which utilizes results emissions. Steam cracking alone estimated 543 CO2 equivalent lightweight packaging transport. considered, footprint, comprise 3.4% (monomers, ethylene) 1700s, mostly widely until war times 1900s, annual record thermoplastics, thermosets, polyurethane (PUR). Thermoplastics advantage pliable elevated harden cooled. In 1950, 2 Mt; increased 390.7 Mt. values do account producing textiles, sealants, coatings, paints, varnishes within cosmetics, medicines, processes. Production became phenomenon, located readily accessible supplies Geographically majority takes place China (32%), EU (19%), North America (18%), rest Asia (17%) 2). often co-located (oil extraction) creating US, petrochemical corridor New Orleans Baton Rouge, LA, shale region Appalachia Ohio River Valley host about 20% capacity 32% respectively, portion industry. addition, refineries processing transportation corridors major rivers facilitate transport These placed historically marginalized underserved communities, burdening exposure stage, justice concerns industrial spillage byproducts. 2023, Norfolk Southern railway derailed released 100,000 gallons vinyl waterways. Vinyl known carcinogen PVC pipes, flooring, siding. rapid polymer-associated contaminants resulted death toll 43,000 aquatic animals, cities households shut off drinkable municipal well water. Even feedstock destination, lead hazardous air neighboring fenceline communities. Globally resin codes (which necessarily indicate recyclability), polypropylene (PP) (#5), low-density linear LD/LLDPE (#4), (#3), high- medium-density H/MDPE (#2), PET (#1), PUR (#7), polystyrene/expanded (PS/EPS) (#6), others (#7). combined, PE (HD/MD/LD/LLDPE) 27%. combined (all PE, PET, PVC, PS), equal just over half (51%), does include polyesters similar PET. Biobased 2% alternative feedstocks. formulations imperfect brittle too tough, sometimes flammable, dull appearance. Polymer-associated aid manufacturing polymer monomeric polymer. 10,000 serve different functionalities longevity polymer, antioxidants, plasticizers, flame retardants, UV inhibitors, antistatic agents, catalysts, lubricants, aids, biocides, dyes. leads non-intentionally added substances (NIASs). NIASs residue incomplete reactions catalysts thermal breakdown manufacturer unaware of, additional trace impurities transformation metabolites 92 906 likely human hazards. One example bisphenol A (BPA), function antioxidant type epoxy polycarbonate. BPA endocrine disruptor linked male female fertility, risk cancer, metabolic disorders. Per- poly-fluorinated compounds (PFASs) lubrication, fire resistance, stain resistance furniture, firefighting protective gear, fast food wrapped PFASs persistent body cause fetal development, increase cancer risks, vaccine effectiveness. N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) tires found environmentally transform 6PPD-quinone. product mortality events coho salmon after rain wash tire rubble roadsides Northwestern Pacific freshwater streams. Mixtures additive, synergistic, antagonistic fully understood. bound variety matrices rates dependent physical-chemical chemical, plastic, conditions. hydrophilic will much faster larger hydrophobic additives. remain original structure transformed biologically metabolized. Every unique formulation differs made. You see even labeling product. recycling label bottom multiple containers say #1, colors, visually indicates dyes plastic. There no standardization utilized considered confidential business information trade secrets. makes mixing stream venture previous versions surface. class monitored determine largest sector (44%), followed construction percentages automotive, electrical electronics, household, leisure, sports sectors Single-use holding transporting immediately becomes disposed of. Therefore, quickly less than year). durable goods extended periods. electronic household might longer periods, inexpensive nature means sooner intended. Agricultural cropland higher fragments getting directly Socioeconomic studies shown especially single-use driven cost convenience. Many people affordable trying meet needs Global estimates generate billion metric tons annually. quickly, 12% quantity (by mass) equals 240 generated Since applications, adjust managed. Management systems redesigned handle influx entering stream. Of cumulative (8.3 tons), 77% (6.4 tons) 2015. incinerated, combustion converting dioxide air. On average, 9% mechanically globally, while landfilled, smaller fractions leaking typically designed mind. collection, separation, mechanical challenging since began solid 1950s. Today, plastics’ sheer continue issues light, filmy bags easily blow trash cans, trucks, away films recovery (MRFs) if accidentally put curbside recycle bins. To film drop separate collection centers, grocery stores, eventually patio deck boards. Some those biofeedstocks, biodegradable compostable. Polymers polylactic acid (PLA) reach composting biodegrade. polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) normal contact microbes biodegrade; however, speed biodegradation depend temperature microbial consortia. Oxo-degradable non-biodegradable fragment pieces biodegradation. critical efficient effective management system match infrastructure. If component help methane compostable should matched infrastructure; otherwise, always infrastructure markets part system. Chemical unproven. formal management, Globally, informal workers collect livelihood. Unfortunately, proper safety protection disrespected unrecognized. Typically working under harsh conditions, still keep valuable system, health. 79% gone landfills basis, 11 oceans. Terrestrial lands common sink debris blown washed streams Low-density float transported ocean, travel currents. Litter 60%–85% litter abundance) items, 2022 International Coastal Cleanup wrappers, cigarette butts, beverage bottles, bottle caps, bags, glass aluminum straws, cups, plates. It 1960s Fish Wildlife scientists finding birds interacting ending interactions ingestion entanglement. observed ingested 1,288 marine species 277 terrestrial species. Impacts interaction nutritional dilutions, mobility, strangulation, habitat displacement, organism. decrease reproduction population, cascade web biodiversity. available seafood 10% world’s population depends fishing income. disposal weathered time oxidation sun, causing brittle, crack, fragment). Polymer degradation days thousands years, depending conditions determined factors: physical wear tear, exposure, biological consumption, etc. weathering fragments, microplastics, nanoplastics, chemicals. Microplastics 5 mm size intentionally manufactured sizes (pre-production pellets, glitter, etc.) macroplastics. gained widespread attention research media ability locally organisms, body. Nanoplastics 1 μm, allows particles further tissues. Trillions ocean’s surface, thousand deposited annually onto western national parks detected microfibers originating textiles clothing, carpets. nanoplastics large areas, allow chemicals.Table 2Summary sources, pathways, transition, areas environmentPlasticsSourcesPathwaysTransition areasMicroplastics washing, dryers abrasion air, etc.)industrial pellet lossblown stormwater runoffterrestrial urban/rural biosolids landfills); remote beaches deposition sitesRivers (catchment areas); lake, river, sedimentsFloat carried animalswastewater treatment facilitiesdischargetextiles, carpetsatmospheric depositionMicroplastics (e.g, paint particles, fragmentation etc.)Macroplastics general etc.)stormwater runoff sewer overflowwashed waterways drainage systemsroadside litter) dumpsitesblown runoffwaste systemsblown transport, recycling/disposalMicroplastics items)Macroplastics bags)Lost gearfreshwater recreation, boating, fishingdirect waterways, rivers, oceancommercial via ingestion, particles. digestive tract, tissues, blood, placenta. foreign objects potentially addition jagged edges, viruses, adsorbed contaminants, contain charged surfaces. contamination understood require study. Waste generation reduction, high-income countries highest, addressing management. impossible task connecting 500,000 services 2040 would needed ocean. evolved necessary pollution, cannot component. As result massive volume microplastic recoverable now planetary boundary threat. petrochemicals, wicked problem complex benefit thinking, interdisciplinary, mixed-method approaches. touch lives, disciplines science physical, natural, sciences humanities, marketing, engineering science, journalism communications, education, arts. Creativity expand horizons interdisciplinary holistic approaches issue. alternatives, humans, Source separation organic recycling, residuals landfilling, reaching goal 90% landfill diversion “zero waste.” looking unnecessary, avoidable, problematic (UAP) terms context (some locations where, cases, not, e.g., bottles). Problematic BPA, 6PPD, PFAS) harder manage black color). simplification plastic-associated listed publicly databases better streamlined opportunity mixed petroleum-based replaced contributions Further upstream generated, options reuse schemes, centralized return shipping refill) decentralized local refineries, bulk good container wash/reuse schemes). Companies space commitments change, express preference alternatives convenience fast-paced lifestyles drivers use. Policies are, be, essential interventions. Bans, taxes, procurement requirements, producer responsibility (EPR) policies enacted Cities worldwide, bear brunt collecting data circularity, zero goals, deciding work best context. members commitment United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) legally binding treaty path bring stakeholders together address negotiation (set complete 2024), opportunities national, state, governments, companies, non-governmental grassroots organizations move forward own initiatives knowledge hand. J.R.J. co-founder Can I Recycle (CIRT) board member Marine Debris Foundation.